structuralism

Structuralism as literary movement or

What is structuralism?

             The movement structuralism was inaugurated in the 1950, by the cultural anthropologist Claude Levi Strauss. It is basically a French movement; however the father of structuralism is Ferdinand-de-Saussure. Because the movement finds its origin in the early twentieth century work,

                           “A course in general linguistic’’- 1916

                       This book is written by Saussure and he gives importance of science study of language rather than a historical one, According to critic Pramod k Nayar.

                            ‘’Structuralism is a form of criticism which sought to understand a work of art in the context of structures whish have genre, culture and language’’    

   Before critic Saussure the importance was given to the historical study of language. The major focuses was on the origin and development of language, the ‘’diachronic mode’’ of study. This indicates a study of language across time.

 However for the first time, Saussure turned away from the diachronic mode of a study of language. He focused upon the pattern and function of language in today’s world and its use. According to Saussure we have to study language according to changing time, in short

‘’structuralism is an attempt to see everything in terms of Saussuran linguistics’’- Pramod Nayar

1)   Signifier and Signified

    According to Saussure the sign is constituted by the signifier and signified.

“Signifier’’ is the word or the alphabets which are arranged in a particular order.

 While the signified is the concept that the signifier stands for.

EXAMPLE; Rose it is made up for four alphabets and it creates specific image of rose not a cap or cat.

2)   Three fundamental assumption

   Saussure and linguistics have three fundamental assumptions

Ø Arbitrariness

Ø Relational

Ø Systematic

Saussure believes that the meanings we attribute to word are entirely arbitrary. The meaning is presented through ‘’usage’’ and ‘’convention’’ only.

     Words are defined in relationship of combination and contrast with one another. No word has its meaning isolated.

EXAMPLE; ‘’cat’’ means cat only, neither ‘’dog’’ nor ‘’rose’’.

“Language constitutes our world and our very existence’’- Saussure

         Language is a system itself. It is not personal important but his spoken words are important. It is necessary to analyze how a word produces particular meaning. For that we need to understand the set of structures in language because it helps us to speak and to make sense, Saussure calls this study as ‘’semiology’’. Semiology indicates study of signs and sign system of language.

3)   Langue and Parole

     According to Saussure there is distinction within language. It is necessary to understand langue and parole as a part of structuralism and structuralist criticism.

        The system of structure of language and some conventions which governs speech is called ‘’ langue’’.

                While the actual utterance in the social context is parole.

 To understand parole one should be aware of the system or langue. This relationship between parole and langue was at the root of study in Saussure and linguistic.

4)   Characteristics of structuralism

                Structuralism is informed and characterized by the following method.

A)  Literature is an outcome of culture and it is modeled on the structure of language. In short language constructs the basic nature of our perception or reality.

B)   Structuralism allows the structurlists to investigate the manner in which literary texts are structured. They can analyze language its grammar

C)   Literature is a system itself in a particular culture. It is such system which is based upon the linguistic model.

D)  Structuralism seeks the process of meaning production. It even analyses how the text constructs meaning.

E)   Structuralism allows studying texts at three different levels.

Ø The importance of book in isolation.

Ø Study of one text in relation to other text.

Ø Study of genetic difference like difference of novel and poem.

5)   Influence of structuralism

              Structuralism influenced most of disciplines and field whether it is literature, psychology, cultural study, Marxism there is ultimate influence of structuralism.

EXAMPLE

                         Claude-Levi-Strauss himself adopted the structuralist methodology to analyze myths.

                        Jacques lacan adopted structuralist methodology to analyze psychology.

                        Louis Althusser adopted structuralist methodology to analyze Marxism.

                   

                        Ronald Barthes adopted structuralist methodology for writing on the fashion system.

·      Major writers and schools of structuralism.

                Many movements and schools were pioneered due to structuralism.

EXAMPLE; Russian formalism, the Prague school and structural narratology.

                The major writers who supported the structuralist analysis include,

Ø Julia Kristina.

Ø Gerard Gannet.

Ø Ronald Barth.

     

                     

Symbolism

                        The word symbolism is derived from the Greek word “symbollein” which means ‘to throw together, mark, emblem, token or sign’. The verb symbol is an object which can be animate or unanimated. Symbols represent or stand for something different.

                Definitively manifesto of symbolism was published in September 1886 in an article ‘le Figaro’ written by Jean Mores’. He founded the symbolist school whose members were Baudelaire, Mallarme, and Verlaine etc. Other famous followers include Reme Ghil, Griffith and Gustavo khan. According to critic M.H.Abrahm

               “In the usage of literary historian, symbolist movement designates specifically a group of French writers beginning with Charles Baudelaire”.

              Now there might be question that what can be effective and universal symbols in literary writing. To answer the question critic J.A.Cuddon suggest that any object and action can be symbol in literary writings.

EXAMPLE- in literature there are many objects commonly used as symbols by writers.

1)   SCALE- symbol of justice

2)   MONARCHY- symbol of rule

3)   DOVE- symbol of peace

4)   A GOAT- symbol of lust

5)   THE LION- symbol of strength and courage

6)   THE ROSE- symbol of beauty

7)   THE LILY- symbol of purity

8)   CROSS- symbol of christianity

9)   THE SWASIKA- Nazi in German

10)                  BLOOD- mourn and violence.

                     As critic J.A.Cuddon rightly quotes that

“Action and gestures are also symbols”

EXAMPLE- The clenched fist in aggression and anger, beating of breast signifies remorse and pain. An arm raised denotes surrender hands clasped suggest prayer or request.

                  While taking about symbol in literature critic J.A.Cuddon says,

       “a literary symbol combines an image with a concept. It may be public or private, universal or local...”

           Public and universal symbols are almost similar to one another. They are known everywhere.

EXAMPLE- Dove and peace, Red rose and loves etc.

                 In the history of English literature the masters of using public symbols are Virgil, Dante, James Joyce etc.

     While private symbols are limited to perticular class community, state or country. some literary works known for symbollism.

Dante is master of using various symbols in effective way

“Divine commedia” this work is structurally symbolic in the history of English literature.

 Macbeth, Hamlet, King Lear.

           In the Macbeth, there is recurrence of blood which symbolises guilt and violence. While in ‘Hamlet’ weeds and disease symbolise corruption and decay. Finally in the King Lear, clothes symbolise arrearence and authority.

“Rime of the ancient Mariner”- S.T.Coleridge

              Here in this book the shooting the bird albatross is symbol of sin and lack of respect for natural order.

“Metamorphosis’’ - Kafka

“The west land”- T.S.Eliot

“Ash Wednesday”- T.S.Eliot.

                All these works are full of private a symbol which naturally evokes the interest and brighten the story.

                 Finally there was much use of symbolism in French poetry during 19^th century. Poets like Baudelaire and Mallarme have highly developed symbolism through their poetry. Baudelaire and his followers believed that the poet is a kind of seer. So that the duty of poet is to see through and beyond the real world. They believed that the poet has to create “other world” by suggestion and symbolism.

            Some of the major symbolist poems are as below.

‘Correspondence’

‘Sleen’

‘La chevalier’

‘Le voyage’- Baudelaire

‘La Bonne Chamson’

‘Romances sons paroles’- Verlaine

‘Apparition’

‘Poesies’- Mallarme

          

             All these French poets have highly influence the next generation of poet in French as well as outside the French.

              The main “heirs” of symbolist movement outside French are W.B.Yeats, Ezra pound, T.S.Eliot, R.M.Rike, Stefan George etc.

 

Realism

Realism

                The word “Realism” comes from the root word “Real”. Realism is “exceptionally elastic critical term”. It is considered to be ambivalent and equivocal term. The term “realism” has gained many adjectives and similar words. However they all are ambivalent. They don’t have enough clarifying meaning in them.

              The term “Reality” has different interpretation in different subject and “ologies”.

Example- Philosophy distinguishes two basic terms about the concept of “Reality”.

ü Correspondence

ü Coherence

           The correspondence theory believes that the world is known by scientific inquiry, by data by documentation and by definition. Moreover it depends on referential and practical language. It is quite objective in approach.

          While when we say the coherence, it suggests that the external world is known by the intuitive perception and by insight. Moreover the coherence theory depends on emotive language. It believes in subjective point of view.

           However this division are made in philosophy. But in language such division are not possible. However its influences are unavoidable. Realism has influenced all the walks of life. Similarly it has affected literature too. While talking about realism and its meaning in literature. J.A.Cuddon quotes,

“Fundamentally in literature realism is the portrayal of life with fidelity”.

                 In other words, realism suggests the thing which must be programmatic. More especially it suggests

“... Jackets off a sleeve rolled up ‘no nonsense’ approach”.

                 

                        So far as literature is concerned,     realism is not concerned with idealism, beauty or any transcendental things. It is in direct opposition to the Romanticism which believes in imagination and beauty. In short the term real or reality or realism implies antithesis like unreal, fantastic improbable, fanciful and dream world.

v History of Realism.

                  

                   19^th century is known for its fertility and development in all works of life. During this period many literary schools and movements were pioneered. During the same period, there was a recognizable and conscious movement in literature which was subsequently tagged as “Realism”.

               The French were responsible for this movement. It began sometime in the 1830s and finally it had gathered momentum (development and process) by the 1850s. Finally during the later part of the century realism was a definite trend in European literature.

             Initially the term “Le realism” is to be found in the “mercure Francais Che Xtxe  siecle (1826)”. According to J.A. Cuddon

“Here it refers to a point of view or doctrine which states that realism is a copy of Nature and reveals to us the literature of truth”.

            Here, realism directly rejects classicism, romanticism and doctorin of “art for art’s sake”

v Influence on Realism.

                         It was in 19^th century the theory of realism combined with practice to produce a large body of literature. So the literature was highly influenced by philosophical thought.

EXAMPLE-“ Cours de philosophie positive by Comte (1830)”

                     

                 Comte’s positivism in this book made sociology a prime science. It has influenced many people. Critic Taine has applied Compte’s theories to the sphere of literature.

EXAMPLE- “Histirie DE la literature Anglaise (1863-64)

                      Later, Feuerbach and Charles Darwin influenced many people.

               “origin of Spices” (1850) – Darwin.

              This book is based on reality and science about the origin and development of human beings.

Later the invention of photography in 1839 had an immense effect on the world and existence in general. Here the scene and episodes were faithfully recorded.

         The painting of Courbet had an incalculable influence. He was strongly opposed to any kind of individualization in art and romanticism and had established the doctrine of realism in painting.

J.A.Cuddon

“For him the peasant and the worker were the fittest and the most estimable subject for a painter.”

                        Courbet’s idea of painting has influenced many realistic writers.

“Le Relisme” (1857) – Champfleury

          He applied Courbet’s point of view to literature.

v Major characteristics of Realism.

1)    The first feature of realism is that it believes in reality and science.

2)    It has given more importance to common man and his harsh life.

3)    It avoids fancy and called beautiful things.

4)    It pays particular attention to exact documentation and faithful recording.

5)    Last but not the least; realism consists that an artist should concern himself with everyday and events, with his own environment and with movements like political, social of his time.

v Major writers and literary output.

             So far as realism is concerned, it has highly influenced the novel form and drama. Here we have many writers who can be called “realistic novelist”.

“Madame Bovary”- Flaubert.

“Germinie lacerteux”- Edmond. (1865)

“Jules de concourt”- Ernest Feydeau.

“La comedie humaine”- Balzac

“Fanny” (1858)- Ernest Feydeau.

       All these novels are termed as realistic novels. They pay special attention to exact documentation to facts and scientific ideas.

          Apart from all these writers like Zola, Maupassant in French, Tolstoy, Gogol in Russia and William Dean Howell in America are concerned to the supportive writers of realism. However Emily Zola is supreme analysts of the movements called “Naturalism”.

          As far as drama is concerned with Ibsen. He is key figure. He has rejected all rigid rules of theater. He has even influenced G.B.Show and Strindberg in writing drama.

           Even in Russia, Anatii Lunacharsky invented the theory of socialist realism in the theater. He propagates that the new plays should be about common man. Thus socialist realism in the theater is largely a Russian phenomenon.

           Even the realism occurs in psychology which is known as “psychological” realism. In literature it indicates the use of “the steam of consciousness” method. Novelist like Dorothy Richardson, vergina Woolf have used psychological realism in their works.

         However, at least we have some realists poets also like George Grabbe, Kipling, and Robert Frost etc.

        These entire poet’s novelist’s and dramatists’ works are more down to earth, closer to everyday life and to general real human experience.

v Critical Reception

              The storage and noteworthy point about “realism” is that most of the pioneer’s personalities of this movement dislike the “term”.

            Courbet himself did not like the term though he himself used it

Ø Champfleury expressed his disapproval in his essay “ Le Realism” (1857)

Ø Baudelaire described it as a “injure deglutinate” and as a “mot vague et elastique”.

            However amid all has its own importance and relevance in 19^th and 20^th century’s literature which are ages of science and technology.

Romanticism

Romanticism (1798)

                  The form “romanticism “is derived from the word “romantic” which means attitude, ideals and feeling. These ideals or feelings are romantic rather than realistic. However according to American scholar A.O.Lovejoy, there are many definition and meaning of the word romantic or romanticism. As a result, there is ‘complexity and multiplicity’ in European romanticism. Many definitions are given by the critic and writers about ‘romanticism’.

EXAMPLE- “The decline and full of the romantic Ideal” – 1948, F.L.Lucas

In this book Lucas has counted 11,396 definition of romanticism.

“Classic romantic and modern”- Barnum (1961)

                  Here in this book, Barnum has offered many similarity uses of the term “romantic”. According to him one can use the following word for the umbrella term “Romantic”, ‘attractive’, ‘bombastic’, ‘emotional’, ‘heroic’, ‘mysterious’, ‘ornamental’, ‘adventurous’, ‘extraordinary’, ‘gallant’, ‘passionate’, ‘wild’ etc. However as a student of literature and in literary context we have to use the word romantic or romanticism for “responses from repugnance to enthusiastic approval”.

v History of romanticism

    According to J.A.Cuddon

“The word romanticism has a complex and interesting history”.

                       

             In the Middle Ages ‘romance’ means new vernacular languages derived from Latin. However ever there were many contradictions between new vernacular and Latin. The term also signified popular book, sometimes it was also known as “something new, different divergent”.

               After that during 17^th and 18^th century in England, France and German the term was used in varied sense.

vRomanticism as a literary movement

               

              Fried rich Schlegel is considered to be the first person who has first established the ‘romantisch’ in literary contexts. According to him

      “Romantic depicts emotional matter in an imaginative form”.

He even draws connection between ‘romantic’ and ‘Christians’ later Madame DE Steal has popularize the term “romantique”in literary context in France. She made distinction between the literature of the north and of the south. The northern was medieval, Christian and romantic while the southern was classical and pagan.

v Major characteristics of Romanticism.

ü In increasing interest in Nature.

ü Prominence of emotion and feeling.

ü Away from city life and manner.

ü More interest in simple and decent.

ü Note of feelingful meditation.

ü Interest in simple and ordinary people and their activities.

ü Importance of common Man’s language.

ü Conscious following of simple and nature related themes.

ü A feat range of subject and literary output.

Generally majority of the writers’ appreciate

Nature. They believed in God who is there in all natural objects. Generally the writers have given importance to human feeling and emotion.

                  Even the romantic writers have talked about country side, scenery and natural landscape. They didn't highlight city life which was full of selfishness and practicality. Even there is no single writer who has ever talked about king, queen, prince or princess. They have talked about working class people and their simple, sober life.

                   There are many poets who had meditative insight. They often reflected their deep thinking when they have seen natural object.

EXAMPLE- “To a Skylark”- P.B Shelley

  

                Since there was return to nature during their age, majority of the books were about the theme of nature and its wonderful world. Not only that there was great variety of literary output. Thousand of poems, novels, essays and theories were written during their period.

            At last what s more important and special about romanticism is that whatever was written in literature it was written in very simple language as a result anyone can easily understanding.

v Influence on the Romanticism in literary context.

                       The ideals of the French revolution inspired the romantic writers. The French motto “liberty, equality and fraternity” inspired romantic writers like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley,   Byron Etc.

               Rousseau is the major figure in 18^th century has greatly influences the pre- romantics. The following work by Rousseau has inspired many writers.

“Les confessions”

“Du contract social” etc

            Another influence came from German literature; German scholar and writer like Goethe, Kant, Schelling, and Schlegel etc....have influenced the English literature.

EXAMPLE- “Esemplastic imagination on” by Coleridge.

             The theory is inspired by German thinking.

v Writers and Works

ü The Early Romantics.

               James Thomson, Robert Burns, William Black, Thomas Gray etc are considered to be the early Romantics or pre – romantic. The book which is landmark in the history of Romanticism is as below.

“Seasons” – James Thomson

“Night Thoughts” – Young

“The Grave”- Blair

“Elegy” – Thomas Gray.

ü  The later Romantics

           During romantic revival the poetry flourished greatly compare to other literary genres. The major poets are Wordsworth, S.T. Coleridge, Lord Byron, P.B Shelley, John Keats etc.

Even the novel form was developed by Richardson, Goldsmith, Laurence Sterne, Walter Scott and Jane Austen during this period. Other prose writers include Charles Lamb, Coleridge peacock etc.. Finally the every form was developed under writers William Hazlitt and Southey. Some best poems are as below.

“Lucy poems”

“The solitary Reaper”

“Daffodil” – Wordsworth

“Kubla Khan”

“The rime of Ancient Mariner” – Coleridge

“Don Juan” – Byron

“Isabella”

“The pot of basil” – Keats.

Some novels are as under.

“Pamela”- Richardson

“The vicar of Wake field”- Goldsmith

“Sentimental Journey”- Stern.

v Conclusion.

           Thus the romantic is very wide movements. It includes many meanings and interests. But in literary context we can quote oxford dictionary.

“Romanticism is the autistic movements of the 18^th and 19^th centuries which were concerned with expression of the individual’s feeling and emotion”.

Imagism

Imagism

             The term imagism is consisted from the root word ‘Image’. Imagism is a short lived Russian poetic movement. It was originated in 1919. Ezra pound is given credit to coin the term “Imagism”. Around 1914, poets like Ezra pound have produced many economical poems. There are some general characteristics of imagism which are as below.

1)    Imagism indicates that poetry which are characterised by some clear images.

2)    Imagism represents poet’s impression of any scene in very concentrated manner.

3)    Generally poet use images to create poetic response and to avoid any comment or development of an argument.

4)    Imagism indicates juxtaposition one impression with another.

5)    Generally imagist poems are simple in structure.

6)    In such poetry there is precise description of any seen and metaphoric comparison.

7)    It represents a reaction against the weakest sort of romantic poetry.

8)    Imagism indicates the start of modern poetry. It even highlight the way of expressing a sense of puzzling and fragmented word in poetry.

9)    The most important point is that imagism indicates “a new self consciousness” about poetry. The imagist’s poet’s propagates that the method of writing poetry needs to reform and change.

                                   If we analyse the modern poetry, then we will come to know that there is plentiful use of images. As a result it becomes very difficult to interpret the modern poetry. The reason is that poets have used strange images with no any explanation. So it becomes the duty of reader to find out in what way the poet has used particular image.

                                     According to critic John peck and Martin Coyle,

               “In Ezra pound’s poem we do not merrily accept the content; we stop at the surface, asking why the poet is writing in this strange way?”

                       Since imagism is modern phenomenon, there is reflection of modern world. Modern world is notorious for fragmentation, decay problem of unemployment, dissatisfaction etc. As a result, the images are also very complicated, puzzling and fragmented.

v Major Imagists.

                   Imagists include a group of poets who were prominent before the First World War. The best known poets and their works are as below.

      “Des imagists (1914) – Ezra pound.

It is a collection of poems which are full of unique images.

EXAMPLE- “IN A STATION OF THE METRO”

                            This is a two line poem. The poem is like this   “The apparition of these faces in the crowd,

            Is petals on a wet, black bough”.

      

The principle behind the poem is that pound wants to represents his impression of the station scene in a very concentrated manner.

“Above the dock”- T.E.Hulme.

                 It is a good example of a poem in the imagist manner. After that in 1915, Amy Lowell published some imagist poems. Even poets like Richard Aldington and Hilda Doolittle are also known as imagist in modern English poetry.