structuralism

Structuralism as literary movement or

What is structuralism?

             The movement structuralism was inaugurated in the 1950, by the cultural anthropologist Claude Levi Strauss. It is basically a French movement; however the father of structuralism is Ferdinand-de-Saussure. Because the movement finds its origin in the early twentieth century work,

                           “A course in general linguistic’’- 1916

                       This book is written by Saussure and he gives importance of science study of language rather than a historical one, According to critic Pramod k Nayar.

                            ‘’Structuralism is a form of criticism which sought to understand a work of art in the context of structures whish have genre, culture and language’’    

   Before critic Saussure the importance was given to the historical study of language. The major focuses was on the origin and development of language, the ‘’diachronic mode’’ of study. This indicates a study of language across time.

 However for the first time, Saussure turned away from the diachronic mode of a study of language. He focused upon the pattern and function of language in today’s world and its use. According to Saussure we have to study language according to changing time, in short

‘’structuralism is an attempt to see everything in terms of Saussuran linguistics’’- Pramod Nayar

1)   Signifier and Signified

    According to Saussure the sign is constituted by the signifier and signified.

“Signifier’’ is the word or the alphabets which are arranged in a particular order.

 While the signified is the concept that the signifier stands for.

EXAMPLE; Rose it is made up for four alphabets and it creates specific image of rose not a cap or cat.

2)   Three fundamental assumption

   Saussure and linguistics have three fundamental assumptions

Ø Arbitrariness

Ø Relational

Ø Systematic

Saussure believes that the meanings we attribute to word are entirely arbitrary. The meaning is presented through ‘’usage’’ and ‘’convention’’ only.

     Words are defined in relationship of combination and contrast with one another. No word has its meaning isolated.

EXAMPLE; ‘’cat’’ means cat only, neither ‘’dog’’ nor ‘’rose’’.

“Language constitutes our world and our very existence’’- Saussure

         Language is a system itself. It is not personal important but his spoken words are important. It is necessary to analyze how a word produces particular meaning. For that we need to understand the set of structures in language because it helps us to speak and to make sense, Saussure calls this study as ‘’semiology’’. Semiology indicates study of signs and sign system of language.

3)   Langue and Parole

     According to Saussure there is distinction within language. It is necessary to understand langue and parole as a part of structuralism and structuralist criticism.

        The system of structure of language and some conventions which governs speech is called ‘’ langue’’.

                While the actual utterance in the social context is parole.

 To understand parole one should be aware of the system or langue. This relationship between parole and langue was at the root of study in Saussure and linguistic.

4)   Characteristics of structuralism

                Structuralism is informed and characterized by the following method.

A)  Literature is an outcome of culture and it is modeled on the structure of language. In short language constructs the basic nature of our perception or reality.

B)   Structuralism allows the structurlists to investigate the manner in which literary texts are structured. They can analyze language its grammar

C)   Literature is a system itself in a particular culture. It is such system which is based upon the linguistic model.

D)  Structuralism seeks the process of meaning production. It even analyses how the text constructs meaning.

E)   Structuralism allows studying texts at three different levels.

Ø The importance of book in isolation.

Ø Study of one text in relation to other text.

Ø Study of genetic difference like difference of novel and poem.

5)   Influence of structuralism

              Structuralism influenced most of disciplines and field whether it is literature, psychology, cultural study, Marxism there is ultimate influence of structuralism.

EXAMPLE

                         Claude-Levi-Strauss himself adopted the structuralist methodology to analyze myths.

                        Jacques lacan adopted structuralist methodology to analyze psychology.

                        Louis Althusser adopted structuralist methodology to analyze Marxism.

                   

                        Ronald Barthes adopted structuralist methodology for writing on the fashion system.

·      Major writers and schools of structuralism.

                Many movements and schools were pioneered due to structuralism.

EXAMPLE; Russian formalism, the Prague school and structural narratology.

                The major writers who supported the structuralist analysis include,

Ø Julia Kristina.

Ø Gerard Gannet.

Ø Ronald Barth.

     

                     

Symbolism

                        The word symbolism is derived from the Greek word “symbollein” which means ‘to throw together, mark, emblem, token or sign’. The verb symbol is an object which can be animate or unanimated. Symbols represent or stand for something different.

                Definitively manifesto of symbolism was published in September 1886 in an article ‘le Figaro’ written by Jean Mores’. He founded the symbolist school whose members were Baudelaire, Mallarme, and Verlaine etc. Other famous followers include Reme Ghil, Griffith and Gustavo khan. According to critic M.H.Abrahm

               “In the usage of literary historian, symbolist movement designates specifically a group of French writers beginning with Charles Baudelaire”.

              Now there might be question that what can be effective and universal symbols in literary writing. To answer the question critic J.A.Cuddon suggest that any object and action can be symbol in literary writings.

EXAMPLE- in literature there are many objects commonly used as symbols by writers.

1)   SCALE- symbol of justice

2)   MONARCHY- symbol of rule

3)   DOVE- symbol of peace

4)   A GOAT- symbol of lust

5)   THE LION- symbol of strength and courage

6)   THE ROSE- symbol of beauty

7)   THE LILY- symbol of purity

8)   CROSS- symbol of christianity

9)   THE SWASIKA- Nazi in German

10)                  BLOOD- mourn and violence.

                     As critic J.A.Cuddon rightly quotes that

“Action and gestures are also symbols”

EXAMPLE- The clenched fist in aggression and anger, beating of breast signifies remorse and pain. An arm raised denotes surrender hands clasped suggest prayer or request.

                  While taking about symbol in literature critic J.A.Cuddon says,

       “a literary symbol combines an image with a concept. It may be public or private, universal or local...”

           Public and universal symbols are almost similar to one another. They are known everywhere.

EXAMPLE- Dove and peace, Red rose and loves etc.

                 In the history of English literature the masters of using public symbols are Virgil, Dante, James Joyce etc.

     While private symbols are limited to perticular class community, state or country. some literary works known for symbollism.

Dante is master of using various symbols in effective way

“Divine commedia” this work is structurally symbolic in the history of English literature.

 Macbeth, Hamlet, King Lear.

           In the Macbeth, there is recurrence of blood which symbolises guilt and violence. While in ‘Hamlet’ weeds and disease symbolise corruption and decay. Finally in the King Lear, clothes symbolise arrearence and authority.

“Rime of the ancient Mariner”- S.T.Coleridge

              Here in this book the shooting the bird albatross is symbol of sin and lack of respect for natural order.

“Metamorphosis’’ - Kafka

“The west land”- T.S.Eliot

“Ash Wednesday”- T.S.Eliot.

                All these works are full of private a symbol which naturally evokes the interest and brighten the story.

                 Finally there was much use of symbolism in French poetry during 19^th century. Poets like Baudelaire and Mallarme have highly developed symbolism through their poetry. Baudelaire and his followers believed that the poet is a kind of seer. So that the duty of poet is to see through and beyond the real world. They believed that the poet has to create “other world” by suggestion and symbolism.

            Some of the major symbolist poems are as below.

‘Correspondence’

‘Sleen’

‘La chevalier’

‘Le voyage’- Baudelaire

‘La Bonne Chamson’

‘Romances sons paroles’- Verlaine

‘Apparition’

‘Poesies’- Mallarme

          

             All these French poets have highly influence the next generation of poet in French as well as outside the French.

              The main “heirs” of symbolist movement outside French are W.B.Yeats, Ezra pound, T.S.Eliot, R.M.Rike, Stefan George etc.